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　　标题：动物实验(4)

　　文体类型：总结文

　　提出实验1，得出一个理论：科学家作了一个实验，让乌鸦拉绳(yanked on the swing)取meat，最后乌鸦得到了meat。乌鸦在通过一次次的努力，每次努力都去掉了前面的error，并且每个步骤都做得好。这个实验有个前提，野生的raven 平常没有类似的训练或者经历，因此不是乌鸦先天的本能或是以前有过的经验。最后科学家得到结论：raven 是有logic thinking 的。

　　进一步说明实验A：很多动物在试验中也可以一步一步的来获取复杂放置的食物，但是他们都是通过不断试错，(Q1) 加上研究人员在实验过程中，每完成一步都用食物奖励(food rewarding)做到的，这不能说明这些动物有logic thinking。(Q6) 而raven 实验中，raven 只有最后成功才有奖励。

　　有人反驳说，每做一步raven 就会发现肉离它更近了一点，所以受到了精神上面的鼓励，所以才这么一步一步做下去。(Q2) 但作者提出一些比较复杂的理由认为该反驳不成立(没考点)。

　　**对于实验B，有两个版本，同学考试时一定要确认实验内容的结果为何。

　　【版本一】提出实验B，得出不同结果：科学家又做了个试验，虽然比第一个试验难不了多少，不过raven 的表现差很多，说明原来的假设值得进一步的研究。

　　【版本二】提出实验B，得出相同理论：科学家又作了另一个实验，让乌鸦拉绳实验中的奖励故意以一种random 的形式出现，所以raven 拉绳子时occasionally 会掉下食物，于是它就不高兴再试了，即使raven 在这个实验里，把全部试完的步骤，也不比第一个实验里的多，但因为它发现这个设置是illogical 的。所以说明raven 是logical 的，而前段那些人的反驳不成立。

　　**作者本身无态度

　　问题：

　　Q1：如果猴子也被拿来在试验室里做同样试验，它会怎么表现?(猴子怎样的行为才能说明它有逻辑思维能力)

　　参考答案：(E) 猴子通过一系列复杂的行为来获取水果。

　　Q2：反驳的观点是什么?

　　Q3：第二段作用。

　　答案：提供一个解释

　　解释：文章主流方向还是肯定最开始结论的

　　Q4：最后一段作用。

　　答案：排除第一段的巧合的可能(注意：这个答案是讲第三段确定乌鸦有logical 能力的)

　　Q5：问imply。那些lab 动物是怎样的情况?

　　答案：通过获取食物奖励等学习某行为。

　　Q6：main idea 题/主旨题。

　　选项：A. provide evidence to support the raven’s ability

　　选项：B. 陈述几个关于乌鸦大脑能力的实验(参考答案)

　　选项：describe expriments 去验证乌鸦们到底有没有logical。

　　Q7：细节题：实验A 怎么证明乌鸦是有逻辑的?

　　答案：它得到食物的每一步并不是都有奖励的。

　　Q8：细节题：实验B 说明了什么?(为何提到raven 在实验B 中会扯那绳子occasional 发现那食物?)

　　预测答案：否认反驳者，并证实乌鸦其实是具备逻辑的。

　　干扰选项：否认了实验A 的结论，认为乌鸦其实并不具备逻辑，之前乌鸦的行为是偶然的。

　　Q8：第二段中的其它动物。。。(具体问的啥来着我不记得)

　　答案：有food rewarding 的一个选项。

　　Q9：原文认为下述哪个是正确的

　　答案：乌鸦拉绳子发现肉是个偶然现象

　　英文背景知识：Clever raven proves that it's no birdbrain

　　Logic and puzzle-solving come naturally to highly intelligent scavenger, claim biologists

　　Scientists have revealed an unexpected candidate for the title of the world's second smartest creature - the raven. According to a pair of researchers, a bird brain is no longer a sign of stupidity; indeed, it could be a sign of surprising intelligence.

　　In the latest issue of Scientific American, Bernd Heinrich and Thomas Bugnyar - scientists based at Vermont University in Canada and St Andrews University in Scotland, respectively - reveal a series of experiments that provides startling backing for the idea that ravens are the brain boxes of the natural world. 'These birds use logic to solve problems and some of their abilities even surpass those of the great apes,' they say.

　　One startling experiment they outline involved ravens who were allowed to sit on perches from which pieces of meat dangled from string. To get a treat, a raven had to perform a complex series of actions: pull up some of the string, place a loop on the perch and hold it with a claw, then pull up another section of string and hold that loop on the perch. By repeating this process half a dozen times, a raven could reach the end of the string and get the meat.

　　'Some animals can be taught how to get food this way,' Heinrich said. 'However, I found ravens could perform this complex sequence of actions straight away.

　　I was extremely surprised the first time I saw one of them do this. These birds have never seen string before or encountered meat hanging this way, yet they worked out exactly what they needed to do to get a treat.'

　　Many animals, birds and insects are capable of carrying out complex actions: nest-building, for example. However, such creatures are programmed genetically to undertake the different steps involved in such behavior. Little intelligence is involved. By contrast, ravens have demonstrated that they can work out complex sets of actions, involving no tests or trial and error. This implies that they use logic. 'The birds acted as if they knew what they were doing,' the two researchers say in Scientific American. 'Ravens have the ability to test actions in their minds. That capacity is probably lacking, or present only to a limited extent, in most animals.'

　　Other experiments by biologists have shown that ravens often let other animals do work for them. In the wild, they have been known to make calls that bring wolves and foxes to dead animals so that these large carnivores can break the carcass apart, making meat accessible to the birds. Birds related to the raven also show surprising intelligence. The New Caledonian crow has been shown to fashion tools of leaves and to use them to extract grubs from crevices in trees, for example.

　　Scientists such as Heinrich and Bugnyar believe that ravens evolved their surprisingly high intelligence because of their complex social lives and scavenging lifestyles.

　　The birds have to be able to assess very quickly how close to a wolf or fox they can get when one is eating a dead animal: they need to get close enough to get food, but not be attacked themselves. However, Heinrich cautioned against stating unequivocally that the raven is the cleverest animal on Earth after humans.

　　'It is up there with the great apes and dolphins,' he said, 'but I think it is very difficult to say which is cleverer. There are different types of intelligence. I am good at biology but hopeless using computers, for example. Nevertheless, it is now clear the raven is one of the very smartest creatures we know about.'